On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. In the sub-category of independence, a total of 20 comparisons were made in which 9 (45%) were significant, but 3 (15%) were in the negative direction. Future research is necessary to determine if in fact some measures are inappropriate to measure change following an assistance dog, which may be addressed using interviewing and focus group techniques among assistance dog handlers. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. In longitudinal studies, the first follow-up time point varied from 3- to 12-months after receiving an assistance dog. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. Summary of methodological rating scores by each of the N = 27 individual studies. A total of 13 mental health outcomes were assessed in which 4 (31%) were significant across group or condition. Only Vincent et al. [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. If you've taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinner's rats, Pavlov's dogs, Harlow's monkeys. However, it is of note that several methodological weaknesses of the studies make it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions, including inadequate reporting and a failure to account for moderating or confounding variables. The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. As Serpell and colleagues point out, individuals that dont benefit from animal-assisted interventions may be just as informative from a scientific perspective as the ones that do, and the entire field potentially suffers when these sorts of contrary or ambiguous findings get buried or ignored [74]. Guide dogs were only assessed in four studies (all of which were cross-sectional, and one of which was an unpublished thesis [46]). First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. A main weakness of animal studies is that animals have a different physiology to humans. Limitations t, F, or B values) and only 55% (15/27) of studies reported exact probability values from analyses. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). Answer and Explanation: In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. Other studies found increased social connectedness 3-months after receiving a mobility or hearing dog [31] and increased community integration 6, 12, 18, and 24 months after receiving a mobility service dog [14]. A common argument against the use of animals in experiments is that animals are not good models for humans, based on the observation that we are not simply larger versions of lab rats - our bodies (and minds) work differently. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. As research on the assistance animal-handler relationship continues to increase, there is a need for an updated, comprehensive collation of the literature encompassing studies on the effects of all varieties of assistance dogs (guide dogs, hearing dogs, and both mobility and medical service dogs) including both published studies and unpublished theses and dissertations. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. [16] found that those with a mobility or medical service dog reported significantly higher work/school functioning than a control group. Studies are often described without specifying that they were animal studies. Animal psychologists have been undergoing an identity crisis, with increasingly common criticisms of the traditional field revolving around the assumption that laboratory preparations alone will reveal laws of learning having generality. This occurred by either matching groups on select criteria or statistically comparing groups demographic characteristics before performing main analyses. Grey literature was addressed by searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses (ProQuest) and WorldCatDissertations and hand searching the abstracts of the International Society for Anthrozoology and International Association of Human Animal Interactions Organizations conferences. Using a different measure of emotional functioning, Rodriguez et al. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs). He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. Why is animal psychology important? [32] found that participants reported worse occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a hearing dog while Davis [44] found that individuals with a mobility service dog reported worse occupational functioning compared to a control group. The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Undergraduates sometimes ask what the value of animal research is in psychology. [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. Advancing psychology to benefit society and improve lives. Longitudinal studies addressed an average of 59% of methodological items while cross-sectional studies averaged 65%. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs. However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. Despite the purpose of these assistance dogs specifically for physical tasks, positive outcomes were noted in psychological, social, quality of life, and vitality domains. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. Table 5 displays all quality of life outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of overall quality of life, life satisfaction, and independence. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Therefore, due to observed heterogeneity, a meta-analysis was not pursued. Of 27 studies, 20 (74%) assessed a psychological outcome with a total of 24 different standardized measures. This page has been archived and is no longer being updated regularly. Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Of five studies using a version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale [55] only Yarmolkevich [46] found significantly lower self-reported loneliness in those with a guide dog compared to a control group. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. For example one could not look at the effects of maternal deprivation by removing infants from their mothers or conduct isolation experiment on humans in the way that has been done on other species. These studies were reviewed to complete three specific aims: to describe the key characteristics of studies, to evaluate the methodological rigor of studies, and to summarize outcomes. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [4]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. We found that most studies were conducted in either the United States or the United Kingdom, but there was international representation of the research in Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Further, in contrast to a psychiatric service dog or an emotional support dog, the assistance dogs in this review are not explicitly trained for mental health-related support and their effects on the psychosocial health of their handlers may be variable rather than population-wide. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Studies made an average of 5.4 statistical comparisons on psychosocial outcomes, ranging from 115 comparisons. Lorenz, animal studies of attachment: Lorenz's research investigates the Evolutionary Explanation of attachment suggesting that infants are pre-programmed to form an attachment from the second that they are born. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. Additionally, research suggests the relationship between an assistance dog and its owner may also serve as a reciprocal attachment and caregiving relationship characterized by secure and strong attachments [18, 19]. In this review, we have provided a primer on permanent and reversible lesion techniques currently in use in animal research, and a brief discussion of how they might . However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. However, Lundqvist et al. Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats, monkeys. Four studies found no effect of having a hearing dog [29] or mobility service dog [39, 41] on the UCLA Loneliness Scale. This practice was instrumental in our evolution and in the emergence of civilization. Articles were published from 19942018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time. However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. Fig 2 displays the total scores across each of the 15 items, separated by introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections (see S2 Table for individual study scores). Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). Finally, information regarding the ethical and regulatory environments in which animal research is conducted is covered in a superficial manner or omitted altogether. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. In the next sub-category, six studies assessed life satisfaction outcomes using Satisfaction with Life Scale [SWLS; 57]. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. Animal models are a fundamental tool in the life sciences. The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement . [35] found increased functioning 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Shintani et al. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). Neuron. Animal research: Serving a vital role in psychological science. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. Abstract. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Not only are companion dogs prevalent in modern society, but dogs are also often intentionally incorporated into therapeutic processes in the contexts of animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy [AAT; 1]. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. The third aim of the review was to summarize psychosocial outcomes of studies. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Most animals, once the testing process has been completed, are euthanized. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. Even procedures as simple as drawing a blood sample or testing an animal on a cognitive task must be approved by the local IACUC before the work can begin. [35] found no improvement 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, Donovan [28] found no improvement 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and Shintani et al. Samples sizes ranged from 10 to 316 participants with an average sample size across all studies of N = 83 +/- 74 participants and a median sample size of N = 53. A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. It is unreasonable to assume that the changes to an individuals life following receipt of an assistance dog is identical for all ages, gender identities, backgrounds, and disabilities. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. To date, there have been several reviews summarizing the literature on the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on their handlers. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. Citation: Rodriguez KE, Greer J, Yatcilla JK, Beck AM, OHaire ME (2020) The effects of assistance dogs on psychosocial health and wellbeing: A systematic literature review. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. Assistance dog categories (guide, hearing, mobility, and medical) were collapsed for the purposes of this review, but undoubtedly contribute to the lives of individuals with disabilities in diverse ways. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting information files. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Therefore, the current literature is limited to correlational, rather than causal conclusions regarding the benefits of assistance dogs on the psychosocial health of their owners. [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. S2 Table. However, Guest et al. Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. Assistance dog placements and roles have grown rapidly in recent decades, especially in the United States, Canada, and Europe [2]. Animal research continues to play a vital role in psychology, enabling discoveries of basic psychological and physiological processes that are important for living healthy lives. Ironically, those animals that are likely to be the best models for psychopathology are also likely to be considered the . Of 27 studies, 7 (26%) reported outcomes from at least one standardized measure of vitality with a total of five different standardized measures. Of 58 total psychological outcomes, 21 (37%) were positive (improved or better psychological health in comparison to pre- or control conditions), 37 (63%) were null (no difference), and zero (0%) were negative (decreased or worse functioning in comparison to pre- or control conditions). Lundqvist et al. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. In total, 147 comparisons were made across the 27 studies that examined the effect of having an assistance dog on a standardized scale or sub-scale on a psychosocial outcome: 58 (39%) psychological outcomes, 43 (29%) social outcomes, 34 (23%) quality of life outcomes, and 12 (8%) energy/vitality outcomes. route finding, retrieving dropped items, alerting to a seizure), the assistance dogs companionship, emotional and social support, and social facilitation effects in public may be particularly salient to improving the quality of life of individuals with disabilities [79]. However, none of the four studies using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [CES-D; 52] found significant differences in self-reported depression among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group [3941] or after 4-months with a mobility service dog [28]. In addition to poor methodological reporting, many studies were restrained by statistical weaknesses. For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. [17] found an effect of having an assistance dog on mental health. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Jamie Greer, Therefore, future efforts should be made to publish null findings in peer-reviewed journals and to encourage scientific transparency [80]. [17] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). If small rodents are incapable of feeding, they will die within hours - it is highly likely that many substances would not be toxic if a simple sugar solution was injected. Inconsistencies in findings were discussed in terms of wide variability in assessment times, interventions, measures, and rigor, and recommendations were made to contribute to the knowledge of this growing application of the human-animal bond. In the overall quality of life sub-category, 2/8 (25%) comparisons were significant. To achieve the second aim of the reviewto evaluate the methodological rigor of studieseach study was assessed if they met a set of 15 methodological rating items using a scale of yes, no, or N/A (Table 2). Plants lack a nervous system and therefore cannot be used to learn about psycho- logical phenomena. A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. An important finding from this review was that most positive findings were reported in published studies, while unpublished theses were more likely to report null findings. Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology, are the finest-quality pictures of lovely, adorable animals that we have gathered for you and Friend. Animal experimentation, also called animal testing, has contributed to many important scientific and medical discoveries. In a few instances, they represent the only reasonable approach. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. Most studies (15/27; 56%) were conducted in the United States, followed by the United Kingdom (6/27; 22%). Three studies found positive findings on measures of overall psychological wellbeing or psychosocial health, including increased psychological wellbeing 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 6-months after receiving a mobility service dog [14], and better overall psychosocial health in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group [16].
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