T. J. (2009a) Differences in Airstream and Posterior Place of Articulation Among Nuu Clicks. x ), Supplemental Proceedings of Phonology 2013, 110. 26(2): 235254. Each point represents the average of measurements of at least 30 tokens of the vowel from one male speaker reading a text. ), Phonology and Phonetic Evidence, 168187. Figure 3.9 B. & Using data from these sources, This kind of display closely parallels the traditional auditorily based vowel space based on perceived height and backness values used, for example, in the IPA Handbook (1999), but has the advantage of being based on verifiable measurement. H. & , (1981) A Handbook of the Venda Language. The next lower vowels are markedly lower. Thoughts Prompted by Bilabial and Labiodental Fricatives. (eds. Wentzel Variations in the structure of seven-vowel systems occur which are similar to those of the five-vowel systems. Nurse, D. Carleton (1996) demonstrated that units of paragraph length are organised by long-range patterns of tonal declination and resetting. & Bokamba, E. G. T. J. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Thomas-Vilakatis work provides the first direct measures of how powerful the energy generated by this gesture is. 32(2): 161171. High tones tend to fall on the antepenult in Nguni S40 languages such as Xhosa S41, though the penult is stressed/lengthened (Downing 2010). Huffman, M. K. Studies in African Linguistics . Tonal contrasts and vowel length contrasts are often restricted to stem-initial syllables (Downing 2010). Determine their location, language, culture, and place in society in their country/region. Kalanga S16 vowel formant means according to measurements by done the first author. net. and S. When speakers of these languages come to Renaud, P. Hardcastle, W. J. The first frame, numbered 0, is close to the time that velar closure is first made, as detected from the accompanying acoustic record. Hammarstrm The Kalanga S16 vowel pairs transcribed /i e/ and /u o/, which are acoustically equally as high as the Vove B305 pairs, differ in both F1 and F2. It is accompanied by a separate map in which the Bantu languages are numbered in accordance with the system described in the fourth section. Compare the spacing of Xhosa vowels with those of Kalanga S16, shown in Traill, A. Languages across the world have unique phonemic systems. (1996) Notes on Unencoded Speech: Clicks and Their Accompaniments in Xhosa. 35: 5684. 2011, Boyer & Zsiga 2013). Demolin, D. Schadeberg, T. C. (2016a) Intonation in African Tone Languages. 13(2): 171196. , Grahamstown: Department of African Languages, Rhodes University. The means are 248 Hz for /i/, 313 Hz for //, 277 Hz for /u/, and 334 Hz for //. ), Prosodic Categories: Production, Perception and Comprehension, 243265. Similar segments are very rare in the worlds languages, but do occur in the Dagestanian language Tabasaran (Kodzasov & Muravjeva 1982). , E. D. This illustrates one instance where the occurrence of cross-linguistically less common phonetic segments may be disguised by notational practices. Downing, L. J. G.-M. 26(1): 314. Air pressure in the oral cavity is measured in relation to the ambient atmospheric pressure in hectoPascals (hPa, equivalent to the pressure required to support 1 cm of water). We propose a political theory, based on consensual . B. Special mention may be made of Carl Meinhofs work in the 1890s, in which he sought to reconstruct what he called ur-Bantu (the words underlying contemporary Bantu forms), and the descriptive work carried out by Clement Doke and the Department of Bantu Studies at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, in the period 192353. (2007) The UCLA Phonetics Lab Archive. However, these standardised transcriptions may disguise significant differences between languages, especially with respect to the nature of the vowels written /e/ and /o/. In ), The Khoesan Languages, 435444. In this paper, we describe important characteristics and major actional distinctions attested across Bantu languages. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research Miller, A. As is generally the case cross-linguistically, there are fewer nasal vowels than oral ones, at least in lexical stems. Sitoe, B. (2015) The Phonetic Basis of a Phonological Pattern: Depressor Effects of Prenasalized Consonants. M. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Anecdotally, it seems that clicks in other Bantu languages may also vary in amplitude, depending on the individual speaker, stylistic or sociphonetic variables, and prosodic environment. 11: 127149. In shows a typical example of /o/ in the word /ko/ to go; /o/ has a low F2 (below 1000 Hz). Elderkin Journal of the International Phonetic Association Poulos, G. Lingua (ed. . ga] dog (diminutive); same speaker as in & This would therefore be an important counter-example to the more common pattern found in labial-velar doubly articulated segments in other languages in which the labial closure is formed very slightly later (1015 ms) than the velar one. (1992) Kinyamwezi: Grammar, Texts, Vocabulary. *CVCV items have become monosyllabic in Fang, the V2 in these cases is often not the *V2 of the reconstructed form. (19961997) The Formation of Labial-Velars in Sawabantu: Evidence for Feature Geometry. (2010) A Re-evaluation of the Zulu Implosive []. Other major languages of the group, each with 10 million speakers or more, . Blench, R. Figure 3.11 By continuing to use the site Diemer A Bantu five-vowel system consisting of /i a u/ has been described for Soga JE16 (Nabirye et al. Tonga M64 does not preserve Proto-Bantu vowel length, but has developed long vowels from intervocalic consonant loss. Lee The release of a lateral click is also affricated, occurring initially through a narrow channel quite far back, as shown in frame 170 and continuing in frame 180. Co-occurrence restrictions of a harmonic nature between vowels, very typical of sub-Saharan African languages, are quite commonly found in Bantu languages, though often limited in extent, e.g., only applying in certain morphological contexts, such as between verb roots and extensions. (2016) Tone and Intonation in Shingazidja. Downstep due to a floating Low tone is attested in Basaa A43a (Makasso et al. (eds. Engstrand, O. Guthrie, M. Shosted . J. Idiatov Fehn , 2: 6697. Bresch , ), The Bantu Languages, 475500. This figure makes clear that the expansion of the cavity is not solely due to moving the location of the back closure further back. Ladefoged (2002) Flogging a dead cow?: The Revival of Malawian Chingoni. Gussenhoven P. J. , & Liljencrants, J. Polar or mid tones are found in Holoholo D28 and Nyanga D43. At vowel onset, the F0 difference between High and Low tones after a set of non-depressor consonants is 22 Hz, but a High tone onset after depressor consonants is 44 Hz lower than after the non-depressors and a Low after depressors is 23 Hz lower than after non-depressors. This is usually discussed as a contrast between advanced and retracted (or neutral) tongue root position, i.e., ATR. In these cases there is a substantial fall in F0 from the onset to the middle of the nasal, and pitch begins to rise before the consonant is released; the pitch peak on the vowel is 40Hz (left panel) or 50Hz (right panel) higher than the lowest pitch in the nasal. Positional restrictions are another aspect of prosody in Bantu languages. Figure 3.10 2010), and in Tswana S31 only for some speakers (Coetzee & Pretorius 2010). & 2010), but the increasing availability of such corpora may encourage phonetic studies of natural (unelicited) speech. Makuya (1990) Ralisations tonales et contraines segmentales en fang. Electropalatography (EPG) of Mvita Swahili G42b shows that implosive // has a more retracted occlusion than pulmonic /t/ and // has a shorter occlusion than /t/ (Hayward et al. , , it can be seen that in Xhosa S41 /e o/ are located almost equidistant from the high vowels /i u/ and the low vowel /a/. Mickey There is a raising process in Xhosa S41, which results in higher variants of /e o/ when /i u/ occur in the next syllable. (eds. (eds. L. Hinnebusch M. A. In , Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the International Speech Communication Association (Interspeech 2009), 22792282. Figure 3.26 There is much work that remains to be done on cross-linguistic, intra- and inter-speaker variation of typologically unusual sounds such as clicks and whistling fricatives. Undoubtedly, studies of intonation and prosody in Bantu languages will continue to increase in number. In ), Tabasaranskie Etjudy, 616. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. The white bow-shaped line crossing each midsagittal image is also an artifact. The waveform of an intervocalic bilabial implosive in Tonga S62 is shown in African Studies In addition, many have only H and L in their outputs, e.g. Firmino The book discusses the phonetic and morphological characteristics of these 2 zones and a classification of the groups, clusters and dialects is provided. S. J. For Sukuma F21, Batibo (1985) also provides acoustic evidence for a relatively wide separation of the seven vowels, with /e o/ all being clearly mid vowels. Acoustic Correlates of Click Voicing in Whispered Speech. Rialland (1992) tude du systeme vocalique fang par rsonance magntique. Muravjeva ), The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, Chapter 14. (2014) The whistled Fricative in Xitsonga: Its Articulation and Acoustics. Readers unfamiliar with acoustic analysis might see Ladefoged (2000) for an introduction to the concept of a formant. 74: 1634. D. and . (eds. , / all represent a voiced nasal (post)alveolar click. (2009) Phonology and Phonetics of Tone in Northern Sotho, a Southern Bantu language. , ), Intonation in African Tone Languages, 365392. & Lexical stems have a system of seven oral vowels but only five nasal vowels. It is difficult to be certain that ATR contrasts exist in a language unless direct articulatory data on the vocal tract configuration during vowel production is available. Figure 3.31 Zvegintsev, V. S. Introduction This chapter will describe some of the major phonetic characteristics of the (Narrow) Bantu languages based on first-hand familiarity with some of them and a reading of available literature. Recording courtesy of Constance Kutsch Lojenga. 10(4): 166172. shows very clearly that independent tongue root adjustment does not contribute to the distinctions between any members of the front vowel set /i e /, nor the back vowel set /u o /. Comparison of selected vowel and consonants lengths in Ganda JE15 and Sukuma F21 (see text for explanation). J. Hamann, S. Top row, front vowels /i/, /e/, //; bottom row, back vowels /u/, /o/, //. 31: 111137. In the rest of this section, three of the particular issues of phonetic interest are discussed: the dental/alveolar place contrast, the possible occurrence of articulatorily complex consonants, and the nature of the so-called whistling fricatives. Longer sections of the chapter will be devoted to aspects of laryngeal action in consonants, to the description of clicks and their distribution in Bantu, and to some of the interesting aspects of nasality which occur in these languages. van Zanten Braver, A. & T. C. Journal of African Languages and Linguistics & Variation in the realisation of voiceless nasals is at least in part correlated with position in a word. The typical pattern for dental/alveolar contrasts is that the dentals are laminal while the alveolars are apical. Published for the International African Institute by the Oxford University Press, 1948. & Pharyngeals have developed from velars in other Niger-Congo languages. 19: 111131. In Mbukushu K333, the one series of clicks is reported to be pronounced either as dental, palatal or [post-]alveolar sounds (Fisch 1998). Prieto In languages which have lost the contrast, each TBU is both a syllable and a mora (and pre-consonantal nasals are typically non-syllabic). (1970b) Comparative Bantu: An Introduction to the Comparative Linguistics and Prehistory of the Bantu languages. P. J. 30(1): 110. The patterning of tones in many Bantu languages resembles that of pitch-accent systems. These vowels bring to mind the super-high or super-close vowels /i u/ used by Meeussen (1967, 1969) and Guthrie (1967, 1970a, 1970b, 1971) and notated as / / by Meinhof (1899), in addition to normal high /i u/. 2024, Kyoto. Paulian, C. , 5: 105111. Corrections? Yoder Figure 3.15 J. S. M. 2017: 20, Gunnink forthcoming), and may have even been lost where they were once attested. 2014:165). EPG frames of a lateral click spoken by a male Zulu S42 speaker. 2003). (1991) Articulatory Phonology and Sukuma aspirated nasals. In (1999) The Historical Interpretation of Vowel Harmony in Bantu. A. Figure 3.10 K. C. Lindblom Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harmonically related pairs are noted by the use of the same symbol with and without a -ATR diacritic. Table 3.1 de Schryver Pitch contours illustrating effects of non-depressor and depressor /h/ in Swati S43 (male speaker). C. M. Figure 3.35 G. , Figure 3.29 Velarised diphthongs occur in Aghem, a Grassfields Bantu languages of the Ring group, where they have seemingly resulted from an intrusive consonantal gesture (Faytak 2013). It has even been used for those which may simply block a raising or high-tone spreading process. Huffman, M. K. & Gouskova Medjo Mv, P. Niesler, T. She shows that voiceless palatal and velar stops tend to have longer VOT measurements than bilabial, dental or uvular stops (Monaka 2005). Cambridge; Oxford: Blackwell. Miller, A. In , ), Proceedings of the 8th International Seminar on Speech Production, 137140. (1995) Spirantization and the 7-to-5 Vowel Merger in Bantu. The pair /u u/ where F2 is the same are thus quite likely (almost) solely different in pharynx width. Hualde Nasal vowels are not particularly common in the Bantu languages, but are found in certain mostly western areas, for example in Ngungwel B72a of the Teke group (Paulian 1994), in Umbundu R11 (Schadeberg 1982), in Gyele A801 (Renaud 1976) and in a few words in the Bitam variety of Fang A75 (Medjo Mv 1997). L. The bilabial click // is not found in Bantu except in paralinguistic utterances, and as a variant pronunciation of a sequence of labial and velar stops, as in Rwanda JD61 (Demolin 2015: 483). Cologne: Rdiger Kppe. Connell, B. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. 42: 175187. 16: 385400. (2011) Bantu Tone. Figure 3.1 Volume 4: A Catalogue of Common Bantu with Commentary. Edition 1st Edition. 1982, Philippson & Montlahuc 2003). During the time period in which the two closures of a click overlap, lowering of the center of the tongue creates a partial vacuum in the cavity between them. M. Toda Waveform of the middle part of the Tonga S62 word // father, illustrating the increasing amplitude of voicing during the implosive. Voiceless, voiced, prenasalised and even aspirated stops may all pattern as depressor consonants (Chen & Downing 2011, Cibelli 2015, Lee 2015). It is noteworthy that none of the Bantu languages of East Africa appear to have acquired clicks from the surviving or former languages of this area with clicks (Maddieson et al. Faytak, M. & 2003). While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. A. Journal of Phonetics Pretoria: University of Pretoria, PhD dissertation. The chapter is organised into sections on vowels, consonants and prosody. G. Hyman, L. M. 1989: 54). Final lowering associated with a L% boundary tone at the end of a sentence in Ngazidja G44a is often associated with a devoiced final syllable (Patin 2016). Fonetik 2012, 15th Swedish Phonetics Conference, May 30June 1, University of Gothenburg, 7376. Access English Franais Africa The word papyrus may also be articulated with a velar stop in place of the click [rukoma], as seen in In Figure 3.29 4: 85165. F. (1994) Nasales et nasalisation en ggwl, langue bantu du Congo. P. Final High or rising intonations are found in Ganda JE15, Chewa N31b and Saghala E74b, while final High-Low or High-falling intonations are found in Jita JE25. In the Gur language Minyanka, the pharyngeal fricative [] is a variant of // (Dombrowsky-Hahn 1999: 52). Lee Bolzano: Bozen-Bolzano University Press. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. A monumental four-volume classification of Bantu languages, Comparative Bantu (196771), which was written by Malcolm Guthrie, has become the standard reference book used by most scholarsincluding those who disagree with Guthries proposed classification, which sets up a basic western and eastern division in Bantu languages with a further 13 subdivisions. Language Dynamics and Change Miller, A. , which represent the arc of the teeth and the vault of the palate. & Phonetica Downing, L. J. (ed. Yeyi R41 has eight different accompaniments (Fulop et al. (2015) Cumulative Effects in Xitsonga: High-Tone Spreading and Depressor Consonants. Lovestrand, J. Sock, R. 29(2): 101114. Ejective stops and affricates are more rarely found in the Bantu languages, although they occur as variants of the unaspirated voiceless stops in languages of the South, especially in post-nasal contexts. Doke, C. M. (2009) NUGL Online: The Online Version of the New Updated Guthrie List, a Referential Classification of the Bantu Languages (4 Juni 2009) (Available online at. The [-ATR] high Hyman Nine-vowel languages in the Mbam group, such as Mmala A62B and Baca A621, have a contrast between /e/ and // not found in the eight-vowel systems. Downing, L. J. Consonant gemination has developed through internal processes in languages such as Ganda JE15 (Clements 1986) and by contact with Cushitic languages in Ilwana E701 (Nurse 1994). . Sells Mumba It can be predicted from tongue body position: front vowels have wider pharynx than back vowels, lower vowels have narrower pharynx than higher vowels. It is estimated that some 300 to 350 million people, or one in three Africans, are Bantu speakers. In both cases aspects of timing are particularly relevant. The whistled fricative has more peaked and compact spectra than its non-whistled counterpart, and the fricatives also differ in other acoustic measures. (Available online at. Roux, J. C. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Figure 3.2 Thanassoula In Rialland Nagano-Madsen, Y. It is found in Malawi, where, since 1968, it has served as the national language; in Mozambique, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Bantu peoples, the approximately 85 million speakers of the more than 500 distinct languages of the Bantu subgroup of the Niger-Congo language family, occupying almost the entire southern projection of the African continent.
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