https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460.g003. The selection of villages was the same as in the subsample of the villages of Filatov and Daniels dataset (namely, Rikvani, Botlikh, Godoberi, Karata, Kvanada, Tindi, Nizhnie Gakvari, and Tad-Magitl representing the languages Andi, Botlikh, Godoberi, Karata, Bagvalal, Tindi, Chamalal, and Akhvakh, respectively). All classifications outperform the baseline classification (flat typology), in which all linguistic distances are the same (and W necessarily equals 0.5). She said, "Yeah. Sources used by Filatov & Daniel and Koryakov, and even the varieties included in their studies (villages of the provenance of the lexical data) only marginally overlap. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460.g002. For the sake of comparison, a flat topology was added, where all languages are equally related (Fig 5g). We began our study hoping to discover how people differentiate flirting from sexual harassment in the workplace. That fits the definition of divergent thinking quite well. For the sake of comparison below, we are assuming we can use the villages that are indicated as the main sources of lexical data in the dictionaries he says he is using [63: 911]). Bochum: Brockmeyer, 1994. She sees a wide range of people in the course of her job. Vocabulary ~Words used to describe new experiences, ideas, and feelings. In the first two studies, most data come from field elicitations, but a few word lists are from published sources, including [78,79] and Sergei Starostins comparative database [60]. (translation is ours): According to our observations, it is possible to isolate three subgroups of Andic languages, including Andi-Botlikh-Godoberi, Karata-Akhvakh and Bagvalal-Tindi-Chamalal. Mudrak, on the other hand, is not explicit about his computational methods, but it is very likely that he uses the same Starling NJ method as in Koryakov [66]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460.g001. As developments in traditional comparative linguistics allowed to link the spread of lexical items to the spread of cultural features (e.g. Writing review & editing. But other factors contribute to the historical development of languages and determine the spread of a language family over the world's surface. Department of Linguistic and Cultural Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany, Roles Linguistic diversity is sometimes measured using a language . In this example, Elaine described a situation in which she felt that the main character on the television show,Blue's Clues, was flirting with the children in the audience when he said, Oh, I'm going to play, that game with the ball and you know, uh, you shoot it through something, and there's a net on it. . Read other Communication Currents essays, which translate new Communication scholarship for lay audiences. Schulzes [67] classification has the higher correlation, closely followed by Alekseev in [65]. Tree tips represent languages, and branch lengths are all plotted equally. . Divergence under contact: Towards a general model. A convergence is a situation in which two or more things come together, join, or evolve into one. communication, when teachers in language classes, for example, use easier structure and vocabularies based on the level of students they try to facilitate learning for . The aims of this paper are, first to test the correlation between phylogeny and geography and, second, to investigate how this correlation depends on the specific methods used for building the phylogeny. In a slightly different perspective, we can look, for specific phylogenies, at the position of the observed value of Kendalls W with respect to the median of the distribution. A series of studies have focused on longitudinal changes within the speech of a single speaker over a fifty year span. Divergence names a state of affairs subsequent to some change, namely the result of the process called split by Heine and Reh. This page was last edited on 15 February 2023, at 11:18. Although this model was criticized afterwards, it gave a strong impulse to the development of theories and models of geographic dispersal of languages and linguistic features. From Linguistic Divergence to Linguistic. Yes [4246]). The situation is further complicated by the phenomenon of linguistic convergence, by which two genealogically distant or unrelated varieties that are in contact may show more similarities in some respects than their genealogically closer relatives [5:8990]. In other areas, such as Amazonia, scenarios that are different in details but similar in the nature of explanation are suggested, foregrounding language shift, as [3] for Arawakan or suggesting a combination of language shift with population migrations, as [4] for Tupian. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460, Editor: Sren Wichmann, Leiden University, GERMANY, Received: February 16, 2021; Accepted: March 2, 2022; Published: May 26, 2022. We also specifically asked them what distinguishes flirting from sexual harassment. This chapter offers an overview of the most salient current frameworks for analysing processes of convergence and divergence cross-dialectally (including those which occur between standard languages and related dialects) at the grammatical level. The divergences could be pertained to linguistic, social, cultural (Vermeer, 1987 & Goodenough, 1964), religious and other knowledge paradigms as translating a given language text encapsulates . Koryakovs lexicon-based phylogeny [66], for which we also have a phylogeny with meaningful branch lengths (green and blue bars), performs in roughly the same way whether we use patristic distances or calculate the distances nodewise (cf. Including more geographically and linguistically close varieties may obviously boost the correlation between phylogenetics and geography (cf. Examples: English, French, Spanish, Basque*, Swedish What are two things languages do for different cultures? Yasmina. To sum up, what comparison of different phylogenies in terms of geospatial correlation may tell us is which of the phylogenies are possibly more affected by language convergence or, eventually, by the authors geographic bias in feature selection (causing a higher correlation with geography). Andic languages form a branch of the East Caucasian (also known as Nakh-Daghestanian) language family. We can conclude that the samples we are using are representative in terms of geographic sampling. This model implied that linguistic innovations do not evenly spread over a given dialect continuum. Notably, the classifications based on lexical divergence tend to show higher values (weaker significance) while those based on qualitative considerations tend to show lower values (stronger significance). All code is available in S3-S7 File in S1 Data, as well as in the OSF repository (see Data Availability Statement). the shortest way between villages over a spherical surface, and ii) travel cost distances, which take into account the landscape, a potentially important factor in language divergence in highland Daghestan. also [31]). Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. This is discussed in more detail in S2 File and S2-S8 Figs in S1 Data. Digging with a Fork. In this metaphor, pieces of the shell that were originally closest to each other would tend to split last and should lay closest to each other in space after a linguistic expansion has stabilized. We interpret this result as follows: The better fit may be due to implicit geographic bias in qualitative classifications. It solves the problem in a unique way and that's the very definition of divergent thinking. I said, 'No.' Classification of Andic languages is complicated for two main reasons. Words are necessarily a shortcut for meanings. In [65] (Fig 2b), Alekseev suggests three branchesAndi-Botlikh-Godoberi, Karata-Akhvakh, and Bagvalal-Tindi-Chamalalon the basis of what he calls his observations [65:3]. A paradigmatic case is Malcolm Guthries classification of Bantu languages, one of the very few explicitly based on a geographic partition of the area inhabited by the speakers of these languages. Phylogenetic distances for these classifications are calculated node-wise, as a number of the nodes between the two tips of the tree. This is an example of using a coin in an unusual and creative way. [16: 2325], [14:3930]). Comparisons between linguistic and geographic distances with the Congruence Among Distance Matrices (CADM) algorithm [68,69] were performed using the vegan library [86] for R. A significance check was performed by recalculating these correlations after randomly shuffling the languages in each phylogeny (see Results). We've probably all begun a conversation with, But I thought we said or I thought we agreed. It usually occurs after people leave a conversation thinking that they have reached agreement. The form of a lexical item may undergo different changes from its grammaticalised counterpart. We interpret this difference as a consequence of the fact that traditional qualitative classifications have an implicit geographic bias or are based on selections of isoglosses that naturally tend to behave better in spatial terms than shared lexical retentions and innovations, on which quantitative phylogenies are usually based. Copyright: 2022 Koile et al. We use data with high geographic granularity from an area known for its language density to map language distributions onto geography. Larger amounts of extralinguistic evidence can now be taken into account to calibrate more conventional (e.g. Examples of divergence divergence They are not homogenous people, and the historic and prehistoric factors that led to their divergence are still being explored. Divergence is a linguistic strategy whereby a member of a speech community accentuates the linguistic differences between themself and their interlocutor. This short unpublished manuscript only contains the tree but no linguistic arguments substantiating it. David Crystal and Ben Crystal "Everyone has more than one accent. Flat Topology was added as a baseline for comparison. Last edited on 15 February 2023, at 11:18, Learn how and when to remove these template messages, Learn how and when to remove this template message, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Divergence_(linguistics)&oldid=1139486210. We interpret this as an indication that the correlation with geographical distances we observe in the phylogenies is not due to a sampling bias in the selection of the eight representative villages. They might categorize the other person as crazy, not very bright, or morally questionable. The theory emerged during a study attempting to identify the difference between how people define flirting and sexual harassment. Although both of these women use the wordflirting, their examples make it clear that their meanings for this term are radically different. May I speak with you, Linda? The interviewer asked Susan three times if this was really an example of flirting. Our analysis was intended to investigate how the classifications of the Andic languages discussed in Section 2 correlate with geographic distances. relying on tree-like representations [4952]) and justify novel (e.g. Koryakov and Filatov & Daniels trees deliver similar topologies. 2. Dynamic models of language spread rather than static models of language distribution can provide a more accurate account of language divergence. It uses its own similarity measurements, such as aggregated phonetic differences, and relies on other types of representation adapted to reflect continuous variation, such as heatmaps and multidimensional scaling. As an outlook of the study, we suggest that lexicon-based models may be refined with priors accounting for the competing views on the dynamics of language spread, thus yielding models with the same linguistic module but different historical priors. Similarly, the "Sepik-Ramu phylum" has been proposed for the languages in the Sepik Ramu basin in Papua-New Guinea [26]. As a result, in what follows we use simpler GCD-based models instead of more complex travel cost-based ones. Visualization, It is noteworthy that this classification corresponds to the different geographic sub-zones where the Andic languages are spoken, including the Botlikh district, the Akhvakh district and the Tsumada district. We apply Congruence Among Distance Matrices (CADM [68,69]) measure to test the hypothesis of whether, even at such a small geographic scale, geographic distances correlate with linguistic phylogeny. 4.1.2 Doppel avoidance. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460.s001. People think they agree when they really don't. the opposite of language divergence 41.l an gu e divergence th eop si fl angu cv r ; process suggested by German linguist August Schleicher whereby new languages are formed when a language breaks into dialects due to a lack of spatial interaction among speakers of the language and continued isolation eventually causes the division of the One is justified to suspect that the putative macro-family is implicitly based on extralinguistic considerations, such as merely belonging to the same continent. Citation: Koile E, Chechuro I, Moroz G, Daniel M (2022) Geography and language divergence: The case of Andic languages. Again, one may suspect that both the original classification by Laycock and Zgraggen and its elaboration by Foley have a geographic bias and are different, in this respect, only in terms of geographic granularity. Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Linguistic Convergence Laboratory, HSE University, Moscow, Russia, The divergence process is further complicated by cultural spreads of languages that are not associated with physical movement of the populations, but happen via assimilation. She explains language history in terms of a spread directed uphill (or very rarely, a spread directed downhill, which she posits for Chechen), either resulting from a human migration or from a language shift. What do you call that? Um, we had one manager in particular who all this happened with. A range of studies in geolinguistics focus specifically on the features that do not map well to geographic distributions in an attempt to understand the relations between geographic and linguistic divergence of language varieties (cf. We calculated the distances as the number of nodes between the location of two languages in a tree for all phylogenies including [61,6467], as shown in Fig 5; but also the original patristic distances in case of Mudraks [63], Koryakovs [66] and Filatov & Daniels [61] as shown on Fig 3, and the 8-languages patristic distances for the same trees, Fig 4, for comparison. Linguistic Convergence Laboratory, HSE University, Moscow, Russia, Roles This conclusion was based on their incoherent and indiscriminate admixture of variable data. An example is a concessive conjunction in English and German that introduces something that might not have been expected, such as although and obgleich or regardless and ungeachtet. As to the varieties included in his study, for some languages he does not provide an explicit indication of the dialect or village the data come from. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265460.g004. Although the author called this an essentially tentative classification [22: 5], it has had a great impact on comparative research into these languages, to the extent that it is used as part of Bantu languages naming system to our days, in certain contexts. Wichmann and Rama [21: Sections 4.5.14.5.4] discuss more cases where various proposed subgroups in the Pacific are geographically circumscribed but not sufficiently supported by lexical evidence (South Sulawesi, Central Malayo-Polynesian, South Halmahera-West New Guinea). Examples of this are the lects of Rikvani, Gagatli, Andi and Zilo for the Andi language (corresponding to Rikvani in Koryakovs tree); the lects of Miarso and Botlikh for the Botlikh language; the lects of Kvanada and Khushtada for the Bagvalal language (corresponding to Kvanada in Koryakovs tree); and the lects of Karata, Archo and Anchik for the Karata language (corresponding to Karata in Koryakovs tree)see S1 Table in S1 Data for the full list of villages and languages. 4.2 Social settings favouring linguistic elaboration of group-membership distinctions. Filatov and Daniels tree (Fig 3c) is more granular than thoseby Koryakov (Fig 3a) and Mudrak (Fig 3b). The other four are: layering, specialisation, persistence, and de-categorialisation. [14,53,54]), the plausibility of particular reconstruction hypotheses significantly increased or decreased. Green bars use patristic distances as represented in Fig 4 (upgraded from 6 to 8 villages in the case of Koryakov, reduced from 9 to 8 in the case of Mudrak, and from 20 to 8 in the case of Filatov and Daniel). The two resulting phylogenies are shown in Fig 4, with Fig 4a showing Koryakovs phylogeny including the imputed Botlikh and Godoberi; Fig 4b showing a version of Mudraks phylogeny excluding the Gigatli variety of Chamalal; and Fig 4c showing a reduced version of Filatov and Daniels phylogeny that matches the village lects used by Koryakov as closely as possible. This set of linguistic data is often accompanied by extra-linguistic information, the most important coming from archaeology, population genetics, and geography. Blue bars use patristic distances as represented in Fig 3, only available for Koryakov [66], Mudrak [63], and Filatov & Daniel [61]. The lexico -semantic divergence in Urdu to English language pair is done in Example Based Machine Translation approach [24, 25, 26]. . Concepts and Praxis in Communication Video Series, Praxis: Communication in Communities of Practice. This creates pairs of varieties with the same linguistic distance (e.g. It is also well known that, in many areas of high language density, linguistic varieties that are more closely related may be separated from each other by more distantly related or even unrelated languages, for a variety of historical reasons, for example, cf. Fish's social model (1980) is similar to Trees are ordered according to the time of the publishing. for divergence, too.Goossens (1970) points to the following trends, which led to the divergence of the dialects of Dutch and German: 1. specic linguistic elements or structures in the German 'dialect cluster' underwent changes that did not occur in the Dutch cluster; 2. the Dutch cluster underwent changes that the German one did not undergo; This research essentially focuses on large-scale genealogical relations between languages, such as topologies of whole linguistic families (at this scale of comparison, a family the size of Dravidian may be considered a small genealogical unit, cf. To describe this phenomenon, we propose a communication theory of language convergence/meaning divergence (LC/MD). When a lexical form undergoes grammaticalization to a clitic or affix, the original form may remain as an autonomous lexical element and undergo the same changes as ordinary lexical items. (Hopper 1991: 22) A possible formal distinction between divergence and split would be that the latter seems to be confined to cases where one and the same source has several targets, whereas the former merely refers to the drifting apart of previously more similar items. Um, you know and there was an incident where we were all out at a, it wasn't at work but it was a work function, work sponsored it kind of thing. All graphs and maps in this paper were created with the R programming language [72] using the following packages: ggplot2 [73] and lingtypology [74]. For exampl. The divergence in languages may arise at various levels namely: lexical, syntactic, gerund, thematic, inflation, . We are also grateful to Kate Kirby and Simon J. Greenhill for their suggestions regarding geographic modeling, and to the other members of the Linguistic Convergence Laboratory for active discussions and useful comments. Software, While some analyses of between-group factors highlight the role of geographical isolation and reduced linguistic exchange in differentiation, others suggest that linguistic divergence is driven . Varnhagen et al., 2010; Verheijen, 2015 ). What is linguistic convergence and divergence? More generally, a less-than-perfect match between linguistic and geographic distances may have a more meaningful underlying cause than a simple bias of classification. (1997), for example, stresses that language learners are constantly engaged in iden-tity construction and negotiation when they use an L2, and she claims that L2 in- . Ces conclusions soulignent l'importance ' accor- . In particular, we test how quantitative and qualitative phylogenies are compared in this respect. For these classifications, one village representative of each language was chosen. Travel costs were calculated from slopes and transversal cost with the functions create_slope_cs and create_transversal_cs with 16 neighbors from the R library leastcostpath [84]. Since lexicon-based phylogenies assumedly cannot include a geographic bias and are based solely on lexical retentions and innovations of basic vocabulary, which is usually considered a more reliable tool at this time depth, they can be taken as a gold standard (see [41:2] on the time depth of various reconstruction tools). In general we conclude that the relation between the linguistic phylogeny and the geographic distances is, in our case, relatively immune to how the specific locations for languages are chosen (i.e. This example illustrates a new theory of communication called language convergence/meaning divergence.
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